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The subject is conceived as part of the basic professional subjects for the Master's degree program. During the course the students learn about the function and regulatory mechanisms of the human organism, organs and their parts. Poslední úprava: Kovář Jan (30.06.2022)
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Understand the basic physiological functions of organs, organisms and their parts. Regulatory mechanisms to maintain homeostasis.
To get acquainted with cell physiology, physiological expressions and regulatory mechanisms at the cellular level.
To get acquainted with the physiological differences of functions during the development of an individual.
Learn to respond to the stress. Physiological mechanisms for maintaining the integrity of the organism. Poslední úprava: Kovář Jan (30.06.2022)
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Assessments for both semesters and an oral examination at the end of the second semester
Physiology examination – rules
Examinations will be held in person and, in exceptional cases, remotely. Students may apply individually to sit the examination remotely if they have serious grounds for doing so and can provide supporting evidence. Applications will be processed by the department office and the applicant will subsequently be notified by email as to whether their application has been approved or rejected. Withdrawal from the exam is possible no later than 2 days before the date of the examination. Withdrawal from the exam after this deadline may be granted at the student’s request only for serious reasons substantiated by the student and subject to approval of department’s management staff.
Once the registration deadline has passed, each student will receive an email stating the exact time of the examination. The aim is to prevent large gatherings of people during in-person examinations. Students taking the examination remotely will select their examination questions using a random number generator managed by the department’s technical staff.
In both types of examination, the use of any reference materials or technical devices is prohibited. Furthermore, in remote examinations, the use of handwritten notes is also not permitted. The proceedings of each remote examination will be recorded and archived.
One head examiner is always present at the examination. For the third examination session, a committee consisting of two additional members of the academic community is also always present. During other examination sessions, one or more other members of the academic community may also be present, for example, to gain experience in conducting examinations independently. In such cases, the head examiner determines the outcome of the examination. Poslední úprava: Žaloudíková Marie, MUDr., Ph.D. (24.09.2026)
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Barrett, Kim E.: GANONG'S REVIEW OF MEDICAL PHYSIOLOGY, 27th Edition: McGraw-Hill Education Ltd · 2025 Ward, J. P. T.: Physiology at a glance : Wiley & Blackwell, 2008 (B) Guyton, A. C.: Guyton & Hall textbook of medical physiology : Saunders Elsevier, 2011 (B), (avaible as ebook) Poslední úprava: Žaloudíková Marie, MUDr., Ph.D. (25.09.2026)
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Exam Questions 2026/27 General Physiology 1. Feedback regulation – negative and positive feedback 2. Compartments of body fluids, their composition and changes 3. Osmotic phenomena, diffusion, osmosis 4. Forms of transport of substances across the cell membrane 5. Types of receptors for chemical signalling molecules, regulation of their effects 6. Distribution of ions across the cell membrane, resting membrane potential 7. Action potential, conduction of the action potential 8. Neuromuscular junction 9. Contractile apparatus, coupling of excitation and contraction 10. Mechanics of muscle contraction and energetics
The Heart and Circulation 11. The origin of the cardiac rhythm, regulation of heart rate, the conduction system 12. The myocardial action potential and its propagation, relationship to the ECG 13. The ECG – principle and physiological basis 14. Coupling of excitation and contraction of the myocardium and its relaxation 15. Homeometric and heterometric regulation of cardiac contractility 16. The cardiac cycle and its phases (P/V diagram) 17. Stroke volume, ejection fraction and cardiac output; relationship to cardiac contractility and venous return 18. The relationship between pressure, flow and resistance in the vascular bed; critical occlusion pressure 19. Turbulent and laminar flow and the influence of haematocrit 20. Capacitive and resistant vascular beds; principles of blood distribution between the capacitive and resistant vascular beds 21. Blood pressures in various parts of the systemic circulation – determining factors, the importance of vascular compliance and elasticity 22. Mechanisms regulating systemic blood pressure – short-term, medium-term, long-term 23. Mechanisms of blood redistribution among organs, the baroreceptor reflex 24. Coronary blood flow, its characteristics, coronary reserve and its significance 25. Cardiovascular changes during exercise 26. Circulatory, respiratory and other changes at birth 27. Filtration in capillaries, interstitial fluid, lymph, the role of the lymphatic system
Blood 28. Regulation of erythropoiesis and the physiology of the erythrocyte 29. Transport of CO₂ in the blood, the Haldane effect, relationship to acid-base balance 30. Transport of O₂ in the blood, the haemoglobin dissociation curve, the Bohr effect, types of hypoxia 31. Blood groups, immunohaematological relationships, Rh incompatibility between mother and foetus 32. Haemostasis and primary haemorrhage control 33. The principle of haemocoagulation, physiological anticoagulation mechanisms, fibrinolysis
Respiration 34. Factors influencing the composition of alveolar air 35. Dead space, the relationship between dead space and effective ventilation 36. Factors determining the diffusion of blood gases in the alveoli 37. Mechanics of respiration and respiratory muscles 38. Lung and thoracic compliance (P-V curve), the role of surfactant 39. Airway resistance, regulation of bronchial lumen 40. Respiratory effort, static and dynamic, respiratory pattern 41. The ratio of pulmonary ventilation to perfusion, causes and consequences of imbalance 42. Pulmonary circulation, differences from systemic circulation 43. Neural regulation of respiration, defensive reflexes 44. Chemical regulation of respiration, chemoreceptors, respiratory hyperbola
Kidneys 45. Renal blood flow. Regulation, relationship to glomerular filtration 46. Glomerular filtration – factors determining it, regulatory mechanisms 47. Functions of the juxtaglomerular apparatus and the macula densa 48. Transport mechanisms in the proximal tubule 49. Henle’s loop, osmotic gradient in the kidney, role of urea 50. Distal nephron, collecting ducts and water balance, regulation of final urine osmolarity 51. Excretion of potassium and nitrogenous substances by the kidneys, regulation of serum potassium levels 52. The role of the kidneys in regulating acid-base balance 53. Acid-base balance – determining factors, buffers, respiratory and metabolic components, cross-compensation 54. Urination – mechanism, regulation
Endocrinology 55. Mechanisms of thermoregulation and its ontogenetic development 56. General principles of hormonal regulation, mechanisms of hormonal action and feedback 57. Hypothalamic-pituitary system – synthesis, release, regulation, significance 58. Regulation of the synthesis, release, transport and tissue effects of thyroid hormones. Prenatal and postnatal effects 59. Regulation of serum calcium levels and bone metabolism 60. The adrenal cortex and the stress response, therapeutic applications 61. Mineralocorticoids and hormones of the adrenal medulla, mechanisms influencing their release 62. Endocrine function of the pancreas 63. Mechanisms of hormonal influence on blood glucose levels 64. Endocrine function of the testes, its regulation and the effects of androgens 65. Endocrine function of the ovaries, its regulation, the menstrual cycle 66. Pregnancy, the placenta, childbirth, lactation
GIT 67. General mechanisms governing GIT motility; interconnection of individual levels of control 68. Chewing and swallowing (function, neural mechanisms, regulation of saliva production and its function, swallowing reflex) 69. Motility of the stomach, duodenum and small intestine; control and coordination 70. Gastric secretion and its regulation 71. Functions of the duodenum (including regulation of gastric emptying, secretion of pancreatic juice and bile, digestion and absorption) 72. The exocrine pancreas, pancreatic juice and bile, composition and its significance for digestion, regulation of secretion, circulation of bile salts 73. Small intestine secretion, nutrient absorption 74. Functions of the large intestine (motility, intestinal bacteria, absorption), defecation reflex 75. Regulation of food intake (hypothalamus, adipose tissue, leptin, insulin, GLP-1, ghrelin, peptide YY)
Neurophysiology 76. Synapses – neurotransmitters, postsynaptic potentials, summation 77. Glial cells – main types and functions, blood-brain barrier 78. Types of nerve fibres – differences in conduction 79. Proprioception, muscle tone, the gamma system, associated brain centres 80. Spinal cord – anatomical structure, spinal tracts, reflex activity, types of reflexes 81. ANS – sympathetic and parasympathetic systems 82. Central control of motor function – cortical areas, tracts, the role of pyramidal and extrapyramidal (brainstem) tracts in the control of motor function and posture 83. Basal ganglia – structure, function, significance in motor control 84. Cerebellum – functions of individual parts, connections, neurotransmitters 85. Sleep – stages, neurochemical basis, ARAS 86. Memory – classification and types of memory, mechanisms involved in the formation of memory traces 87. Speech – centres and basic pathways, physiological basis of aphasia, lateralisation of the cerebral hemispheres 88. Associative cortical areas (parieto-occipito-temporal, prefrontal, orbitofrontal) and executive functions 89. The limbic system – structures, connections and role in emotions, fear, stress and anxiety 90. The hypothalamus – endocrine and neural regulation of physiological functions 91. Cerebral circulation and its regulation, intracranial pressure 92. Somatosensory system (tactile sensation and thermoreception) – receptors, pathways and centres 93. Pain – main pathways and centres, neuromediators 94. Transmission of light signals via the eye’s optical apparatus and their conversion into electrical signals by the retina, receptive fields 95. Processing of visual information (visual pathway, visual cortex, perception of shape and colour, spatial vision) 96. Hearing – the principle of sensory processing in the organ of Corti, pathways and centres, tonotopy 97. Vestibular system, nystagmus, maintenance of posture and balance 98. Smell and taste – the principle of sensory registration and neural pathways
Examination methods 99. Interpretation of ECG recordings in clinical practice 100. Methods for measuring cardiac output and ventricular function 101. Methods for measuring blood pressure in various parts of the circulatory system and circulatory adaptation to exercise 102. Measurement of lung volumes 103. Dynamic spirometry 104. Plethysmography 105. Measurement of functional residual capacity and pulmonary diffusion capacity 106. Measurement of respiratory system pressures (alveolar, intrapleural, transpulmonary) 107. Assessment of glomerular filtration rate (including serum markers) and renal blood flow 108. Assessment of tubular function 109. Assessment of urine concentration capacity and osmolarity 110. Assessment of renal acidification capacity 111. Blood gas analysis, arterial blood gas test and basic parameters of acid-base balance 112. Oximetry: principle and diagnostic value 113. Complete blood count and basic haematological parameters 114. Coagulation tests and laboratory investigations of haemostasis 115. Examination of the thyroid gland and its function; differentiation between primary and secondary disorders 116. Examination of glucose homeostasis; methods for testing blood glucose levels and insulin secretion 117. Calorimetry and energy balance assessment; calculation of the respiratory quotient 118. Examination of reflexes and muscle tone 119. Electroencephalography – mechanisms underlying brain electrical activity, principles of recording, interpretation, clinical significance 120. Visual, auditory and somatosensory evoked potentials (principles of measurement, interpretation, clinical significance) 121. Examination of the optical apparatus of the eye and vision 122. Examination of hearing and the vestibular system 123. Examination of cerebrospinal fluid, intracranial pressure and cerebral blood flow 124. Examination and determination of plasma osmolarity 125. Electromyography 126. Examination of muscle contraction mechanics 127. Methods for measuring body fluid volumes Poslední úprava: Žaloudíková Marie, MUDr., Ph.D. (25.09.2026)
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1. Heart
1.1. Electrical activity of the heart
Rhythmicity of heartbeats and its origin, regulation of heart rate Action potential (AP) at various parts of the conductive system, the causes of their shape variations, involvement of various ion channels, cardiac pacemaker, timing of the action potential spreading through the conductive heart system, factors affecting heart rate - sympathetic effect, vagal control, receptors, effect. Action potential and its spread through cardiac muscles The shape of the AP myocardial curve, the contributing ion channels, the timing of their action potentiation, the principle of "plateau" and its implication, intercellular propagation, absolute and relative refractory phases, the effect of changes in the composition of the internal environment on AP myocardium. ECG (the recording principle, basic description) Types of connections, registration principle, Einthoven's triangle, principle of recording from leads, heart vector and axis, factors that affect them, basic description of the ECG curve elements - intervals, waves, interpretation.
1.2. Mechanical properties of the cardiac action
Comparison of cardiac muscle fiber, skeletal and smooth muscle contraction Involvement of contractile apparatus components, energy consumption, tetanic contraction, relaxation. Comparison of the excitation and contraction coupling in cardiac and skeletal muscles Principles of muscle cell excitation, signal transduction, pathways resulting in the activation of the contractile apparatus, the role of calcium Mechanisms regulating the force of cardiac contraction Homeometric, heterometric, contractility, factors affecting it, influence of calcium concentration, effect of vegetative control, Frank-Starling's law, principle, consequences, preload, afterload, factors affecting them, central venous pressure, their significance for cardiac contraction strength and cardiac output. Cardiac cycle, cardiography, changes of essential points and segments of the curve Systolic and diastolic cycles, causes and consequences of pressure / volume changes, Laplace's law Cardiac minute output Calculation, Fick's principle, dilution method, echocardiographic estimation, its setting, affecting factors, the influence of changes on the heart rate on its systolic and diastolic durations, the relationship between heart work and oxygen consumption Ventricular function measurements Cardiac output, ejection fraction, interpretation, relation to end-diastolic filling, end-systolic pressure and volume, cardiac index, ergometry, influence of the load on the volume of the cardiac output, cardiac work, oxygen consumption and blood pressure
2. Circulation
2.1 General principles
Relationship between pressure and blood flow Measurement methods, factors affecting the pressure and the flow, elasticity, laminar and turbulent flow, determining factors and thier significance, closing pressure, what determines it and its significance for organ perfusion, parallel and series connection and significance for pressure-flow values
2.2. The pressure-flow relationship at different sections of the vascular bed and its regulation
Factors determining blood pressure, its importance, measurement High-pressure and low-pressure system, significance, capacitive and resistant flow, flow rate and its relationship to pressure at different flow intervals and phases of cardiac cycle, measurement of blood pressure, mean arterial pressure, significance, influence of body position, relation to capillary filtration Time factor in blood pressure regulation and involvement of individual regulatory mechanisms Mechanisms of long-term maintenance of blood pressure stability, the importance of the kidneys, RAAS Neuroregulation of blood flow distribution, baroreceptors, baroreflex, resetting. Local regulation of blood flow, autoregulation of blood flow by organs (metabolic, myogenic, vasoconstrictive, vasodilatory factor).
2.3. Local specifics of blood flow, pressure / flow changes at rest and during exercise
Coronary blood flow Oxygen consumption by the heart muscles at rest and during exercise, coronary reserve, influence of Laplace's law, subepicardial and subendocardial blood flow. Other specific organs blood flow brain (HEB), liver, splanchnicus, kidneys Circulatory changes after birth Circulatory changes during exercise Static, dynamic load, differences 3. Blood and hematogenous gas transport
Transport of gases via the blood, affecting factors Total blood transport capacity and modifying factors, solubility of gases in the liquids, partial pressure, transport in plasma, hemoglobin role in gas transportation and its affecting factors, hemoglobin saturation, Astrup - predictive value, limitations. Hemoglobin dissociation curve Types of hemoglobin and its O2 and CO2 affinity and its affecting factors, consequences. Explanation of the sigmoidal character of the curve, shifts of the dissociation curve, factors causing it, Bohr effect, Halden effect. Blood groups, Rh maternal-fetal incompatibility Antigenic definition of individual types, determination of blood groups, consequences of incompatibility - transfusion, mother / fetus, preventive methods. Hemostasis, hemocoagulation, anticoagulant factors, their interaction, coagulation tests Vasoconstriction and its factors, platelet reaction, hemocoagulation, binding of individual factors, calcium, vitamin K, formation of definitive thrombus, interaction of coagulation and anticoagulation mechanisms within the coagulation cascade, Quick test, APTT, INR, their significance Hematological tests Hemoglobin, hematocrit, mean erythrocyte volume, erythrocyte count, leukocytes, platelets, erythrocyte color intensity, blood count, FW
4. Breathing
4.1. Ventilation and respiratory mechanics
Factors determining the composition of alveolar air, the effect of dead space size Alveolar ventilation versus tidal volume, effective alveolar ventilation, anatomical and functional dead space, partial pressures of gases in the respiratory system, composition of exhaled air during breathing, affecting factors, hypoventilation, hyperventilation, influence on gases partial pressure within alveolar air and blood , calculations. Mechanism of inhalation and exhalation, respiratory muscles, respiratory pattern Barometric, interpleural, alveolar pressure, measurements, their values when breathing is stopped, relation to inspiration and expiration and their changes, its relation to the respiratory rate, inspiratory and expiratory muscles, their activity, management. Factors determining pulmonary compliance and airway resistance, respiratory work Relationship of the volume change versus the pressure change, tissue elasticity and surface tension and their affecting factors, surfactant, lung compliance curve, shape interpretation, airway flow resistance and its indicating factors, regulation of bronchial lumen, static, dynamic work, measurement Examination of lung function Spirometry: TLC, VC, TV, IRV, ERV, RV, FRC, flow-volume curve: FVC, PEF, resting versus forced expiration, plethysmography, lung and airway resistance.
4.2. Blood-alveolar air gas exchange
Causes and consequences of pulmonary ventilation-perfusion mismatch disproportion and their ratio Rahn-Fenn scheme, alveolar dead space, venous admixture, O2 and CO2 partial pressures alveolar and arterial Gas transport across the alveolo-capillary membrane, perfusion and diffusion limitations Diffusion surface, diffusion path, concentration gradient, gases solubility and membrane diffusion, flow rate, diffusion capacity, measurement, A-V difference Functional differences between systemic and pulmonary circulation Pulmonary and systemic bed triggered hypoxic reaction, hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction, mechanism, consequences for oxygen saturation, circulation
4.3. Respiratory regulation
Mechanisms of chemical regulation Central, peripheral, localization, response to change in O2 and CO2, mechanism, adaptation Neuroregulation of respiration Defensive reflexes of respiration, origin of respiratory rhythm, inspiratory and expiratory neurons, activity, lung receptors, peripheral receptors of the thorax and respiratory muscles, peripheral receptors of the limbs, baroreceptors, thermoreceptors, pain.
4.4. Hypoxia - causes and implications
Types of hypoxia Hypoxic, ischemic, anemic, histotoxic, causes, consequences for oxygen transport to tissues, hemoglobin saturation, arterial and venous pO2 and pCO2, dissociation curve in these designated conditions. Hyperbaria, hypobaria Influence on gas transport, respiratory center reactions, dissociation curve shift, ABR shift, effect on hematocrit, effect on pulmonary perfusion Respiratory quotient
5. Kidneys
5.1. Glomerular function
Renal blood flow. Regulation, relation to glomerular filtration. Flow autoregulation, cortical and medullary flow, differences, significance, blood flow myogenic and tubuloglomerular feedback regulation, changes in vas afferens and vas efferens resistance, relation to GF size, influence of RAAS system, ANP, prostaglandins, sympathetic, effective flow Factors determining glomerular filtration Differences in hydrostatic pressures, their causes and consequences, oncotic pressure, permeability of the glomerular membrane and factors influencing it, composition and osmolarity of primary urine, Measurement of glomerular filtration rate and renal blood flow Clearance, principle, calculation, creatinine, insulin, advantages, disadvantages, cystatin C, flow measurement using the PAH clearance method.
5.2. Tubular function
Measurement of tubular transport, fractional excretion of solutes and water Fractional excretion, tubular resorption, calculations, significance, osmolar fractional excretion, osmolality deficit, osmolar clearance, solute-free water clearance Transport mechanisms and their importance in the proximal tubule Na +, glc, K +, HCO3-, H +, urea, amino acids Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system Juxtaglomerular apparatus and macula densa, principle of function, effects of ANG and aldosterone Potassium excretion in the kidneys Localization, importance for maintaining potassium and other factors of the internal environment Renal excretion of urea and ammonia metabolism in renal tubules Correlation of the ABR maintenance Formation of concentrated and diluted urine Osmolarity of tubular fluid during flow through the tubular system, Henle loop function, osmotic startification of the marrow, significance, maintenance principle, influence of aldosterone and ADH on urine volume regulation, principle of action
5.3 Urination Mechanism, control, testing
6. ABR (Acid-Base Regulation)
6.1. Basic factors determining acid-base balance in the body
Acid production in the body, buffers ABR structure Respiratory and metabolic component Values detecting the ABR status Buffer base, base excess, anion gap
6.2. Deviations and regulation of acid-base balance
Acidosis causes, consequences Respiratory, metabolic Alkalosis, causes, consequences Respiratory, metabolic Respiratory compensation The role of the kidneys Urine acidification, principle, localization, acidification tests, titratable acidity, relation to HCO3- transport 7. General physiology
7.1. Thermoregulation and its ontogenetic development
Regulatory functions of the hypothalamus, thyroid hormones, sympathetic nervous system (vasomotor activity of cutaneous vessels, sweat glands, brown fat, uncoupling), tremor. Specificities of thermoregulation in the neonatal period.
7.2. Body fluid compartmentalization, their composition, measurement and regulation
Molarity, osmolarity, electroneutrality. Composition of intracellular and extracellular fluid. Plasma-interstitial fluid gradient differences, Gibbs-Donnan equilibrium. Principle of measuring the volume of body fluid compartments by dissolving the indicator. How changes in fluid intake and expenditure affect the distribution of fluids in the body.
7.3. Tissue fluid production, lymphatic circulation, regional peculiarities in tissue fluid production
Fluid passage through the capillary wall, Starling's equation (hydrostatic and oncotic pressure). Description of the lymphatic system and structural peculiarities of lymphatic vessels. The role of the lymphatic system in fat absorption, reabsorption of fluids from the interstitium and removal of large proteins from the interstitial space. Specificities of the pulmonary microcirculation.
7.4. Ion distribution across cell membranes, significance
Forms of transport of substances across the cell membrane Diffusion, facilitated diffusion, secondary active transport, primary active transport. Factors determining the molecular size of diffusion. Carriers, the most important ATPases, symport and antiport. Distribution of ions on the cell membrane, its derive, influence on the setting of membrane tension Ion channels and selective permeability of the cell membrane, electrochemical gradient. Equilibrium potentials for K +, Na + and Cl-, Nernst equation. Resting membrane potential. Action potential, mechanism of origin, factors that influence it Voltage-dependent Na + and K + channel, changes in membrane conductivity for Na + and K +, graph of voltage course during AP (depolarization, threshold value, repolarization to positive values, repolarization, hyperpolarization). Absolute and relative refractory period and AP propagation.
8. Endocrine system
8.1. General principles of hormonal regulation, mechanisms of action of hormones
Negative feedback simple and complex, positive feedback. Number of receptors and their hormone affinity (down-regulation, up-regulation). Membrane receptors associated with second messenger, membrane receptors associated with catalytic activity, steroid and thyroid hormones receptors.
8.2. Pituitary hormones, their importance in individual development
Relationship between hypothalamus and pituitary gland Relation of adenohypophyseal hormones secretion to the hypothalamic function, connection of hypothalamus and neurohypophysis, overview of neurohypophyseal hormones and their function. Tropical pituitary hormones Overview and their functions, connectivity at the levels of the relevant peripheral gland. Hormones important for growth and development of an individual Growth hormone, prolactin, function, significance.
8.3 Hormonal function of the thyroid gland and parathyroid glands
Release, transport, activation Regulation of thyroid hormone production and secretion, plasma thyroid hormone binding, T4 activation in target tissues, tissue receptor. The effects of thyroid hormones, including their importance for the development Prenatal and postanatal metabolic, circulatory effects, for the development and functioning of NS. Functions of parathyroid glands in calcium regulation.
8.4. Adrenal hormones
Glucocorticoids, stress response Regulation of glucocorticoid excretion, pulsatile secretion, circadian course. Effects of glucocorticoids and the importance of glucocorticoid secretion under stress Adrenal marrow hormones, reaction to stress Biological consequences of adrenal medulla activation. Target organs and tissues according to receptor subtypes and the nature of individual types of response. The importance of catecholamine secretion in stress.
8.5. Endocrine function of the pancreas, regulation of glycemia (growth hormone, corticoids…)
Regulation of insulin secretion in pancreatic β cells. Mechanism of insulin action in target cells, main effects of insulin. Glucagon - regulation of secretion and effects. Pancreatic somatostatin. General overview of glycemic control.
8.6. Endocrine function of the gonads
Endocrine function of the testes regulation of GnRH, FSH and LH secretion in men. Effects of androgens. Endocrine function of the ovaries, menstrual cycle Regulation of ovarian function (GnRH, FSH and LH), negative and positive feedback. Phases of the menstrual cycle and levels of LH, FSH, 17β-estradiol and progesterone. Effects of estrogens and progesterone on the target tissues. Hormonal changes in pregnancy, placenta, childbirth Events in the early phase of pregnancy (fertilization, implantation, HCG secretion). Overview of hormones in pregnancy. Synthesis of progesterone and estriol during pregnancy. The role of hormones in childbirth (oxytocin, prostaglandins, fetal cortisol and the estrogen / progesterone ratio). Regulation of milk secretion and ejection 9. GIT
9.1. General GIT functions
GIT motility and its control (general principles) Slow and fast waves, enteric NS, autonomic and hormonal control of motilities, inhibitory and excitatory GI neurotransmitters (noradrenalin, acetylcholine, CCK, VIP, histamine, somatostatin), effectors, GIT reflexes Secretion and function of regulatory substances Paracrine hormones (somatostatin, histamine, pepsin), neurocrine (Ach, VIP, subst P…); gastrointestinal; (gastrin, secretin, CCK, GIP)
9.2 Functional specifics of individual sections of the GIT
Oral cavity and esophagus Chewing and swallowing (function, nervous mechanisms), motility, regulation of saliva production and their function; significance of saliva secretion volume Stomach Main functions (storage, mixing, propulsion), chyme, regulation and importance of gastric secretion (HCL, mucus, enzymes, hormones); gastric emptying mechanism Digestion of chyme in the small intestine Motility, absorption and postabsorption phases, mechanism and regulation of intestinal juice secretion Exocrine pancreas, liver, gallbladder Hormonal control of pancreatic secretion, bile output, bile salt circulation The main function of the large intestine Propulsion, haustration, defecation, function of intestinal bacteria, resorption of ions, vitamins, water, calcium, iron.
9.3. Systems and substances affecting food intake
Influence of hypothalamus, adipose tissue, leptin, insulin, GLP-1, Ghrelin, peptide YY
10. Nervous system
10.1. General neurophysiology
Synapsis Neurotransmission (presynaptic part), postsynaptic receptors and potentials (ionotropic and metabotropic r.), EPSP and IPSP, neurotransmitters (overview, receptors, synthesis, reuptake), learning (synaptic scales, LTP, LTD) Neuron, glial cell Specifics of the function of individual parts of nerve cells, types of nerve fibers, the relationship between their thickness and myelination to the rate of signal transmission, glia function
10.2. Senses
Vision Retinal circuits, photoreceptors, receptive fields Hearing Mechanics, frequency coding, potassium circulation Vestibular system Function, nystagmus Smell Odorant effect, circuits in the olfactory bulb Taste The effect of five different tastes on receptor cells Somatosensory system Touch, pain, muscle elongation, tendon strain Visceral system Baroreceptors, osmoreceptors, chemoreceptors
10.3. Spinal cord and ANS
Reflex activity of the spinal cord Postural, defensive, monosynaptic, polysynaptic connections, crossed reflexes, reflex arc, gamma loop ANS Sympathetic, parasympathetic, effect on various organs
10.4. Brain
Brainstem centers Cerebellum Functions of its three main components (vermis, flocculus, hemispheres), involvement of mediators Hypothalamus Nerve functions, endocrine functions Basal ganglia Circuits involvement, expected role (behavior control, planning, skills learning) Cerebral cortex Primary cortical areas (sensory areas, motor cortex), higher order cortical areas (secondary, associative, premotor, frontal) Involvement of brain structures in the motor control Sleep Phases, sleep cycle, neurochemical nature of sleep and awakening, ARAS Memory Structures and mechanisms involved in memory track storage, short-term memory - long-term, declarative - non-declarative
10.5. Nervous system tests
EEG Principle, waves, meaning Evoked potentials Poslední úprava: Kovář Jan (30.06.2022)
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