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The final examination on Medical Chemistry and Biochemistry consists of two parts: written and oral. At least 57% of obtainable points must be reached in the written test in order to proceed to the oral part of the final examination. This requirement shall not be applied in case of the third exam attempt. Students who pass the written test but fail in the oral part will not write the test again in the subsequent exam attempts. If a student fails to answer a partial question at the exam, it is sufficient as a cause for termination of examination and classification of the whole exam as ‘failed’. A student can take an examination in a subject for three times as a maximum, i.e. the student is entitled to two re-examinations, and no extraordinary terms beyond that are allowed. In case of the second re-examination in a mandatory or elective subject the student is examined by a committee consisting of at least two examiners. If the internal faculty regulations (Article 19, Paragraph 2), permit repeated registration for the subject, the examination by the committee shall be applied only to the second re-examination in case of the repeatedly registered subject. By this a right of the faculty to enable examination by the committee in other cases, if implied by the internal regulations (Article 19, Paragraph 2), is not affected. The credit requirements and further information on the examinations can be found in the announcements on the website of biochemical institute that provides the classes in the given academic year. Poslední úprava: Pláteník Jan, MUDr., Ph.D. (12.01.2021)
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H.S. Stoker: General, Organic and Biological Chemistry. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston, (latest edition).
P.C. Champe, R.A. Harvey, and D.R. Ferrier: Lippincott?s Illustrated Reviews: Biochemistry. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins (latest edition)
R.K. Murray et al.: Harper?s Illustrated Biochemistry. McGraw-Hill, Inc., USA (latest edition)
B. Alberts et al.: Essential Cell Biology. Garland Science Publishing, New York (latest edition)
J.M. Gerg, J.L. Tymoczko, L. Stryer: Biochemistry. Freeman, New York (latest edition).
Poslední úprava: Kohútová Vladislava, Ing. (07.01.2019)
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LIST OF QUESTIONS FROM MEDICAL CHEMISTRY AND BIOCHEMISTRY FOR THE EXAM
I. Fundamentals of physical, inorganic, and organic chemistry 1. Chemical bonding (covalent and coordinate covalent), ionic bonding; weak interactions and hydrophobic exclusion, and their properties. 2. Water and its physical and chemical properties, importance in the organism. 3. Disperse systems – classification, examples from biochemistry. Solubility of substances. 4. Diffusion, osmosis, osmotic and oncotic pressure, dialysis, examples from biochemistry. 5. Energy of chemical reactions, Gibbs energy and entropy, application in metabolic processes. 6. Chemical equilibrium, Guldberg-Waage law. Kinetics and energetics of reversible reactions, application in enzymology. 7. Basic methods for the separation of macromolecules (electrophoresis, chromatography, mass spectrometry) and their use in clinical practice. 8. Spectrophotometry, principle and applications in clinical biochemistry. 9. Electrolytic dissociation, dissociation constant, strong and weak electrolytes, examples from biochemistry. 10. Brønsted theory of acids and bases, equilibrium in protolytic reactions, examples from biochemistry. Ion product of water, pH and its significance in medicine. 11. Ampholytes- properties and examples from biochemistry. 12. Buffers- pH calculation and significance in the human body. 13. Oxidation and reduction, equilibrium in redox reactions, oxidation-reduction potential, dependence on reactant concentration (Nernst equation). Examples from biochemistry. 14. Precipitation reactions, solubility product, complex formation, coordination compounds, examples. Importance in biochemistry and medicine. 15. Chemical properties of macrobiogenic elements (C, H, O, N, P, Na, K, Ca, Mg, S, Cl). 16. Oxygen and its inorganic compounds, reactivity, properties. 17. Examples of mechanisms of action of toxicologically important elements and inorganic compounds (e.g., heavy metals, chlorine, CO, cyanides). 18. Biological and metabolic significance of microbiogenic and trace elements (Fe, Zn, Cu, I, Se, Co, Mn). 19. Structure of organic compounds, types of isomerism, examples in biochemistry. 20. Amines and nitro derivatives of hydrocarbons, examples and significance in biochemistry. 21. Halogen derivatives and sulfur derivatives (thiols, sulfonic acids) of hydrocarbons. Examples and significance in biochemistry and medicine. 22. Alcohols, phenols, aldehydes, and ketones- role in metabolism. 23. Carboxylic acids and their functional and substitution derivatives, role in biochemistry. 24. Examples of biochemically important heterocycles (e.g., pyrimidine, pyridine, pyrrole, purine, furan, pyran, indole, thiophene), importance, properties, biochemical significance of heteroatoms. 25. Structural characteristics of amino acids, classification, reactions, significance. 26. Peptides, peptide bond, examples of biologically important peptides. 27. Proteins, primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structure. Suprasecondary structures, protein domains. Protein folding disorders. Properties and functions of proteins. 28. Carbohydrates, classification, structure, stereochemistry, biological significance. 29. Reactions and derivatives of monosaccharides, disaccharides, O- and N-glycosidic bonds, examples. 30. Homopolysaccharides and heteropolysaccharides, structure, occurrence and significance in the organism. 31. Proteoglycans, glycoproteins, structure, properties, examples. 32. Lipids – classification, structure, properties, biological significance. 33. Fatty acids – classification, structure, properties, biological significance. 34. Phospholipids and sphingolipids – classification, structure, properties, biological significance. 35. Sterols, bile acids and steroid hormones, structure, function and significance in the body.
II. Fundamentals of metabolism 1. Structure of enzymes, protein and non-protein components. Monomeric enzymes and enzymes composed of multiple subunits. Isoenzymes. Classification and nomenclature of enzymes. 2. Cofactors, coenzymes, and prosthetic groups. Enzyme activators and coactivators. Examples, biological significance. 3. Regulation of enzyme activity, significance for the control of metabolic processes, examples. Physicochemical factors, allosteric effects. Principles of enzyme activity measurement, significance in medicine. 4. Mechanism and energetics of enzyme catalysis. Kinetics of enzymatic reactions. 5. Enzyme inhibition: competitive, non-competitive, covalent, allosteric. Use of enzyme inhibitors in medicine. 6. Respiratory chain. Oxidative phosphorylation. Shuttles for electron transport across mitochondrial membranes. 7. High-energy (“macroergic”) compounds, substrate level phosphorylation, coupling of exergonic and endergonic reactions. 8. Citric acid cycle, amphibolic character, course, and regulation. 9. General mechanisms of amino acid conversion, deamination, transamination, decarboxylation. 10. Formation and detoxification of ammonia, urea cycle, its regulation and disorders. Nitrogen balance. 11. Metabolism of pyruvate and oxaloacetate group amino acids, involvement of these amino acids in metabolic processes. 12. Metabolism of the carbon skeleton of amino acids of the 2-oxoglutarate group, amino acids with a branched chain, involvement of these amino acids in metabolic processes. 13. Catabolism of phenylalanine and tyrosine, disorders. 14. Metabolism of sulfur amino acids. Metabolism of tetrahydrofolate and S-adenosylmethionine. 15. Biogenic amines: biosynthesis, biodegradation, common characteristics, examples. 16. Conversion of amino acids into specialized products: creatine, carnitine, taurine, melanins and their significance. 17. Glycolysis, energy balance, utilization of glycolysis by individual organs of the body in various physiological situations, regulation, pyruvate oxidation, pyruvate dehydrogenase complex. 18. Gluconeogenesis, significance, regulation. 19. Glycogen synthesis and degradation, significance, regulation, disorders. 20. Pentose phosphate pathway, significance, regulation. 21. Metabolism of galactose and fructose, disorders. Metabolism of glucuronic acid and its significance in the body. 22. Biosynthesis of fatty acids. 23. Formation and utilization of ketone bodies, metabolic causes, significance. 24. Oxidation of fatty acids, energy yield, carnitine system. 25. Triacylglycerols, biosynthesis, degradation. 26. Biosynthesis and degradation of phospholipids (glycerophospholipids and sphingolipids). 27. Prostaglandins, thromboxanes, and leukotrienes – key reactions in biosynthesis, basic structural motifs, and (patho)physiological functions. 28. Cholesterol biosynthesis and its regulation, role of HMG-CoA reductase and SREBP. 29. Conversion and excretion of cholesterol, biosynthesis of bile acids and its regulation. 30. Biosynthesis and degradation of steroid hormones. 31. Lipoproteins: general structure and properties, significance. Metabolism of chylomicrons. 32. Metabolism of VLDL, IDL, LDL, and HDL. Serum lipid testing. 33. Heme biosynthesis and its disorders. Incorporation of heme into apoproteins and its function. 34. Heme degradation and its disorders. Jaundice. 35. Metabolism of purine nucleotides, regulation, inhibitors, disorders. Uric acid – formation, significance. 36. Metabolism of pyrimidine nucleotides, regulation, inhibitors, disorders. 37. Reactive oxygen species, formation and significance, antioxidants. Oxidative damage of biomolecules, lipid peroxidation. III. Biochemistry of organs and body functions 1. Biochemical relationships between the metabolism of carbohydrates and the metabolism of other nutrients. 2. Glycemia, regulation. Diagnosis of glycemia regulation disorders (oGTT, glycated hemoglobin). 3. Adipose tissue metabolism. 4. Regulation of heme biosynthesis, differences between hepatocytes and erythroid cells, iron metabolism. 5. Mechanism of action of hormones regulating water and mineral metabolism. 6. Hormonal regulation of energy metabolism. 7. Biochemical processes in the digestion of carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins. 8. Biochemical functions of hepatocytes and the liver, biochemical markers of hepatocellular injury and liver function. 9. Biotransformation of endogenous and exogenous substances, types of biotransformation processes, toxic and carcinogenic substances in the environment. 10. Buffer systems of the body, function and significance for acid-base balance. 11. Erythrocyte metabolism. 12. Significance of blood plasma proteins (albumin, Ig, acute phase proteins, transport proteins). 13. Hemocoagulation, coagulation cascade, initiation, amplification and propagation, tenase and prothrombinase complexes. Role of thrombocytes and protein C. 14. Fibrin, fibrinolysis. Mechanism of action of anticoagulants. 15. Urine – physiological and pathological components. 16. Extracellular matrix, extracellular polysaccharides and proteins (collagen, elastin) – structure, properties, function. Collagen metabolism. 17. Biochemistry of connective tissue (cartilage, bone). Biomarkers of bone formation and resorption. 18. Biochemistry of the skin (barrier function, vitamin D, cytokeratins, intercellular connections, biosynthesis of melanins). 19. Contractile apparatus, control of smooth, skeletal, and cardiac muscle contraction. 20. Markers of muscle tissue damage, cardiac biomarkers – significance, determination. 21. Biochemistry of vision, Wald's cycle, transducin cycle. 22. Biochemistry of taste and smell. 23. Biochemistry of nerve synapses, neurotransmitters. 24. Catecholamines – biosynthesis, biodegradation. 25. Steroid hormones – structure of steroid hormone receptors, mechanism of action, and function. 26. Peptide hormones – examples, mechanisms of action, and function. 27. Local mediators (cytokines, growth factors, chemokines) – function, mechanism of action. 28. Thyroid hormones and their function in regulatory processes. 29. Humoral immunity. Structure and function of immunoglobulins. Complement. CRP. 30. Classes of immunoglobulins, properties and functions. Molecular basis of immunoglobulin diversity in primary and secondary antibody responses, somatic recombination, isotype switching. 31. Basic immunochemical methods. Immunoturbidimetry, immunoanalytical methods with labeled antibodies or antigens. Monoclonal antibodies – production and use. 32. Biochemical aspects of cellular immunity- antigen presentation, recognition of ligands by PRRs, respiratory burst, degradation of material in the phagosome, processing of antigen for presentation, formation of peroxynitrite. 33. Biochemical significance of fat-soluble vitamins. 34. Biochemical significance of water-soluble vitamins, cofactors derived from these vitamins. 35. Structure, composition, and properties of cell membranes. 36. Transport of substances across membranes. 37. Cytoskeleton. 38. Compartmentalization of biochemical processes at the subcellular level. 39. Biochemical functions of the kidneys. Principles of biochemical diagnosis of renal damage.
IV. Fundamentals of cellular and molecular Biology 1. Structure and function of DNA. 2. Structure, types, and function of RNA. 3. Organization of prokaryotic, eukaryotic, and mitochondrial genomes. 4. Principles of DNA sequencing (Sanger, NGS). 5. Replication of eukaryotic DNA, the replication apparatus, and its regulation. 6. DNA repair – BER, NER, MMR, direct repair of modified bases. 7. Repair of double-strand DNA breaks – HR, NHEJ. 8. Transcription of prokaryotic and eukaryotic genomic DNA. Transcription factors, DNA-protein interactions. 9. Structure of mRNA, post-transcriptional modifications (cap, poly A, splicing). 10. RNA interference, types and functions of non-coding RNAs. 11. Mechanisms regulating gene expression. 12. Genetic code and its properties. 13. Eukaryotic and prokaryotic translation. Regulation of translation. 14. Sorting, transport, and post-translational modifications of proteins. Biosynthesis of glycoproteins and their significance. 15. Vesicular transport. Endocytosis and exocytosis. 16. Restriction enzymes and other tools of genetic engineering, construction of recombinant DNA molecules and proteins. DNA cloning. 17. Methods of cell fractionation, electrophoresis of nucleic acids and proteins. 18. PCR, RT-PCR, and qPCR- principles and application in clinical diagnostics. 19. Nature of gene mutations, hereditary and acquired mutations, polymorphisms, mini- and microsatellite sequences and their diagnostic use. 20. Principles, mechanisms, and significance of intercellular communication and intracellular signal transduction cascades. Signal amplification and cross-talk of signaling pathways. 21. Classification of membrane receptors, their ligands, biological significance. 22. Classification of intracellular receptors, their ligands, biological significance. 23. Biochemical principles of signaling pathway-targeted therapy. Examples. 24. G-proteins, structure, functions. 25. Types and role of second messengers in signal transduction. 26. Mechanisms and significance of reversible phosphorylation in signal transduction. 27. Signaling pathways stimulated by growth factors (MAPK, PKB/AKT) and cytokines (JAK - STAT). 28. Proteolysis-dependent signaling pathways, examples. HIF-mediated signaling in response to hypoxia. 29. NO-mediated signaling, medical significance. 30. Proto-oncogenes. 31. Tumor suppressor genes. 32. Cell cycle, role of cyclin and CDK (cyclin-dependent kinase) complexes. 33. Lysosomal and ubiquitin-proteasome-mediated protein degradation. 34. Biochemistry of apoptosis, examples of pro- and anti-apoptotic proteins. Caspases. The role of mitochondria in cell death. 35. Epigenetic mechanisms- histone modifications, DNA methylation, biological significance. 36. Molecular mechanisms of cell senescence: the role of telomeres, cell cycle regulation, and the connection to organism aging. Poslední úprava: Stollinová Šromová Lucie, Mgr., Ph.D. (23.02.2026)
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Introduction to physical, inorganic, and organic chemistry - principles of chemical processes, structures and characteristics of substances that are present in the human body under physiological and pathological conditions and general principles of their metabolism, basics of the metabolism of xenobiotics.
Overview of metabolic pathways - turnover of body fuels, interplay of their metabolic pathways during production, storage, and interconversion of energy and synthesis and degradation of structural and informational molecules.
Molecular biology principles of body functions - dynamics of information molecules, intracellular, intercellular, and systemic mechanisms of metabolic regulations, illustrative examples from the biochemistry of organ systems and molecular defects leading to human diseases.
Concepts of bioanalytical approaches - methods for the detection of biochemical and molecular biology markers in human medicine Poslední úprava: Kolářová Jana (04.10.2019)
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