Předměty

Tissue processing for histological examination and basic histological methods; cellular structure and function including the cell organelles, cell contacts and cell communication, cell division, cell death, stem cell biology; microscopical structure and ultrastructure of basic tissue types and their function, microscopical structure of organs. Application of theoretical knowledge in the histological slide analysis. General embryology: development of gametes, fertilization, development and differentiation of the germ layers. Structure and development of the placenta. Development of the orofacial region. Overview of the fetal development and parturition.

Poslední úprava: Kolářová Jana (08.10.2020)

Requirements for obtaining the winter semester credit from Histology and General Embryology in the academic year 2025/2026

1. A student has to attend 100% of the practical courses (a teacher can tolerate 2 justified absences). In addition, good study results throughout the semester are required including the practical knowledge of histological slides. In case of more absences or bad results from the tests during the semester, there is a possibility of obtaining the credit after an oral exam by the group teacher. This reexamination will take place based on the agreement with the teacher during the 15^th week of the winter semester or during the exam period of the winter semester. In case of not obtaining the credit before the end of winter exam period, the student can get it together with the summer semester credit at the end of the summer semester based on the agreement with the teacher.

2. An independent requirement for the credit is a successful fulfillment of the credit test, which will take place in the regular term during the 15^th week of the winter semester. Retake of this credit test can take place in the first or the fourth week of the exam period of the winter semester. Only two attempts will be allowed for the credit test altogether. For those students who fail the credit test twice there will be a possibility of an oral reexamination by the committee. The terms for oral reexaminations will be opened during the summer semester.

3. The third requirement for earning the credit is a demonstration of one histological slide during the practical lesson of the winter or the summer semester by each student.

4. The credit is a prerequisite for admission to the exam from Histology and General Embryology.

In Prague, September 24, 2025.

doc. MUDr. Tomáš Kučera, Ph.D.

Head of the Institute of Histology and Embryology

Poslední úprava: Kučera Tomáš, doc. MUDr., Ph.D. (24.09.2025)

Povinná:

Mescher, Anthony L.. Junqueira's basic histology : text and atlas. New York: McGraw-Hill Education, 2018, 562 s. ISBN 978-1-260-28841-4.

Sadler, T. W.. Langman's medical embryology. Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer, 2024, 434 s. ISBN 978-1-9751-7996-0.

Doporučená:

Ross, Michael H., Pawlina, Wojciech. Histology : a text and atlas : with correlated cell and molecular biology. Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer, 2016, 984 s. ISBN 978-1-4698-8931-3.

Jirkovská, Marie. Practical lessons in histology : student's book. Praha: Galén, 2014, 128 s. ISBN 978-80-7492-132-2.

Lowe, J. S. Anderson, Peter G. Anderson, Susan I.. Stevens & Lowe's human histology. [St. Louis]: Elsevier, 2020, 426 s. ISBN 978-0-323-61279-1.

Moore, Keith L., Persaud, T. V. N., Torchia, Mark G.. Before we are born : essentials of embryology and birth defects. Edinburgh: Elsevier, 2020, 334 s. ISBN 978-0-323-60849-7.

Volitelná:

Kierszenbaum, Abraham L. Tres, Laura L.. Histology and cell biology : an introduction to pathology. Philadelphia: Elsevier, 2020, 804 s. ISBN 978-0-323-67321-1.

Ovalle, William K. Nahirney, Patrick C.. Netter's essential histology. Philadelphia: Elsevier/Saunders, 2013, 517 s. ISBN 978-1-4557-0631-0.

Young, Barbara O'Dowd, Geraldine Woodford, Phillip. Wheater's functional histology : a text and colour atlas. Philadelphia: Churchill Livingston/Elsevier, 2014, 452 s. ISBN 978-0-7020-4747-3.

Kühnel, Wolfgang. Color atlas of cytology, histology, and microscopic anatomy. Stuttgart ; New York: Thieme, 2003, 534 s. ISBN 1-58890-175-0.

Moore, Keith L., Persaud, T. V. N., Torchia, Mark G.. The developing human : clinically oriented embryology. Edinburgh: Elsevier, 2020, 503 s. ISBN 978-0-323-61154-1.

Schoenwolf, Gary C. Bleyl, Steven B. Brauer, Philip R. Francis-West, P. H.. Larsen's human embryology. Philadelphia: Elsevier, 2021, 548 s. ISBN 978-0-323-69604-3.

Poslední úprava: Baxa Klobušovská Ema (24.01.2024)

Lectures, seminars, practical courses; personal consultations on request.

Poslední úprava: Kučera Tomáš, doc. MUDr., Ph.D. (05.10.2020)

Requested knowledge for final exam of Histology and General Embryology

Cytology and general histology

1.Collection and processing of material for histological evaluation

2.Basic and special staining methods, principles and results

3.Histochemical methods, principles and application

4.Immunohistochemical methods, principles and application

5.Structural organization of the cell, overview of cell components

6.Cell membrane - structure and function

7.Cell surface specializations

8.Membranous cell organelles - structure and function

9.Cell nucleus and non-membranous cell organelles - structure and function

10.Cytoskeleton - structure, function and diagnostic application

11.Structure of intercellular junctions

12.Cell division - mitosis and meiosis

13.Cell cycle and its regulation, cell death – apoptosis

14.Epithelial tissue (classification according to the structure)

15.Epithelial tissue (classification according to the function)

16.Types of secretory cells, classification of glands

17.Smooth muscle tissue

18.Cross-striated skeletal muscle tissue, myofibril

19.Cross-striated cardiac muscle tissue, intercalated disc

20.Connective tissue - general structure and classification

21.Extracellular matrix – structure and function

22.Connective tissue proper – characteristics and classification

23.Cell types of connective tissue proper and their function

24.Cartilage - structure and function, description of the individual types

25.Microscopical structure of the bone tissue, description of the individual types

26.Endochondral and intramembranous ossification

27.Nerve cell - structure, types of neurons, synapse

28.Types of nerve fibers, their sheaths and endings

29.Neuroglia – common features, classification and function

30.Composition of the peripheral blood

31.Preparation and evaluation of the blood smear

32.Erythrocytes, structure and function

33.Leukocytes, classification, structure and function, leukogram

34.Platelets- differentiation, structure and function

35.Hematopoiesis, periods, stem cells, growth factors, structure of the bone marrow

Special histology

1.Structure of the heart, conducting system of the heart

2.General structure and classification of blood vessels

3.Structure of the capillaries, types of arrangement of the capillary bed

4.Structure of the arterial wall

5.Structure of the venous wall

6.Spleen, structure and function

7.Thymus, structure and function

8.Lymph node, structure and function

9.Overview of the immune system

10.Structure and function of the thyroid gland and parathyroid gland

11.Hypophysis, structure and function, hypophyseal portal system

12.Structure and function of the adrenal gland and pancreatic islets

13.Structure of the tongue, overview of the salivary glands of the oral cavity

14.Structure of compound salivary glands

15.Structure of the tooth

16.General structure of the digestive tube, structure of esophagus

17.Mucous layer of the stomach

18.Mucous layer of the small and large intestines

19.Pancreas and gall bladder, biliary ducts

20.Liver

21.Mucous layer of the respiratory tract

22.Structure and function of the larynx and trachea

23.Structure and function of the lung

24.Structure of the kidney, nephron

25.Relationship of nephron and vascular supply of the kidney

26.Excretory urinary passages

27.Skin, general structure, vascular supply and innervation

28.Structure and function of the epidermis

29.Structure of dermis and the subcutaneous tissue

30.Skin appendages

31.Structure and function of the mammary gland

32.Testis, spermatogenesis

33.Epididymis and vas deferens, structure and function

34.Accessory glands of the male reproductive system

35.Structure of the ovary

36.Development of the ovarian follicle, oogenesis

37.Uterus and oviduct

38.Endometrium and menstrual cycle

39.Cervix uteri and vagina, structure and examination

40.General characteristics of CNS and PNS

41.CNS – cyto- and myeloarchitecture of the brain cortex

42.Cerebellum and the spinal cord

43.Peripheral and optic nerve

44.General characteristics of the sensory organs

45.Histological structure of the anterior part of the eye

46.Histological structure of the posterior part of the eye

47.General structure of the inner ear, structure and function of its vestibular part

48.Cochlea and the organ of Corti

General embryology

1.Development (maturation) of sperm

2.Development (maturation) of oocyte

3.Fertilization and early development of the human embryo

4.Development and implantation of the blastocyst

5.Anomalies of implantation, ectopic pregnancy

6.Development of the amniotic and yolk sacs, chorion

7.Embryonic disc and its differentiation

8.Formation of the germ layers

9.Development of the ectoderm and its differentiation

10.Development of the neuroectoderm and its differentiation

11.Neural crest and its differentiation

12.Development of the mesoderm and its differentiation

13.Development of the axial structures (notogenesis)

14.Development of the notochord and its significance for development of other structures

15.Development of the endoderm and its differentiation

16.Origin and further development of the mesenchyme

17.Early development of the cardiovascular system

18.Primitive blood circulation

19.Development of the facial region, nasal and oral cavity

20.Development of the tooth

21.Development and structure of fetal membranes

22.Development and anomalies of the umbilical cord

23.Structure of the placenta

24.Development and anomalies of the placenta

25.Development of chorionic villi, hemoplacental barrier

26.Growth of the conceptus, development of its shape

27.Childbirth (parturition), signs of the full-term baby

28.Multiple pregnancies, twins and their fetal membranes

29.Summary of causes and manifestations of developmental anomalies

30.Basic conditions of teratogenesis, teratogens, critical periods

LIST OF HISTOLOGICAL SLIDES REQUIRED FOR THE FINAL EXAM

Each slide can be stained with any of the basic staining methods, or special staining methods (Heidenhain’s hematoxylin, PAS, impregnation, alcian blue, luxol blue, elastin staining, Nissl´s method, alkaline phosphatase).

Tissues:

A5 Tendon (dense connective tissue, regular)

A11 Fibrocartilage

A12 Endochondral ossification

A14 Intramembranous ossification

A15 Haversian compact bone

A16 Lamellar spongy bone

A17 Uterus - Smooth muscle

A18 Skeletal muscle

A19 Skeletal muscle, Heidenhain´s hematoxylin

Circulatory system:

F1 Heart

F2 Large elastic artery (aorta), cross section

F3 Large elastic artery (aorta), longitudinal section, orcein

F4 Small muscular arteries and small veins

F5 Small muscular arteries and small veins, basic staining method, elastin staining

F6 Large muscular vein (vena cava inferior)

Lymphoid system:

G1 Lymph node

G2 Spleen

G3 Spleen, silver impregnation

G4 Thymus of the child

G5 Thymus of the adult

Endocrine system:

E1 Pituitary

E2 Thyroid

E3 Parathyroid

E4 Suprarenal gland

E5 Pancreas

Digestive system:

B1 Lip

B2 Tooth

B3 Tongue, anterior part of the body

B4 Tongue, root

B5 Palatine tonsil

B6 Parotid gland

B7 Submandibular gland

B8 Sublingual gland

B9 Pancreas

B10 Oesophagus

B11 Stomach, cardia

B12 Stomach, fundus

B13 Stomach, pylorus

B14 Duodenum

B15 Jejunum

B16 Large intestine

B17 Appendix

B18 Liver

B19 Liver, PAS

B20 Gallbladder

B21 Anus

Respiratory system:

D1 Epiglottis

D2 Larynx

D3 Trachea

D4 Lung

Urinary system:

C1 Kidney

C2 Kidney, alkaline phosphatase

C3 Ureter

C4 Urinary bladder

C5 Urethra

Male reproductive system:

C6 Testis

C7 Epididymis

C8 Seminal vesicle

C9 Spermatic cord

C10 Prostate

Female reproductive system:

C11 Ovary

C12 Ovary, corpus luteum

C13 Uterine tube

C14 Uterus, body

C15 Uterus, cervix

C16 Vagina

Skin:

H1 Thick skin

H2 Thin hairy skin

H3 Skin of the axilla

H4 Mammary gland

H5 Mammary gland during lactation

H6 Nipple

Nervous system:

L1 Brain

L2 Brain, Nissl´s method

L3 Cerebellum

L4 Cerebellum, impregnation

L5 Spinal cord

L6 Choroid plexus

L7 Peripheral nerve, longitudinal section

L8 Peripheral nerve, cross section

L9 Sympathetic ganglion

L10 Spinal ganglion

Sensory organs:

S1 Eye, anterior segment

S2 Eye, posterior segment

S3 Lacrimal gland

S4 Eyelid

S5 Olfactory epithelium, nasal mucosa

S6 Inner ear

S7 Optic nerve

Embryology:

X1 Decidua

X2 Chorion

X3 Placenta

X4 Umbilical cord

X5 Development of the tooth

Poslední úprava: Kučera Tomáš, doc. MUDr., Ph.D. (26.09.2025)

Winter semester
Week 1
Lecture: Terminology. Introduction to cytology. Cell membrane and membrane organelles.
Lesson: Histological Technique I. Collection and processing of biological material.

Week 2
Lecture: Non-membrane organelles, cytoskeleton. Cell junctions.
Lesson: Histological Technique II. Staining in histology. Histochemistry.

Week 3
Lecture: Cell nucleus. Cell cycle. Cell division. Apoptosis.
Lesson: Structure of epithelial tissue. Microscopy of epithelial tissue I.

Week 4
Lecture: Fertilization, cleavage, blastocyst development.
Lesson: Function of epithelial tissue. Microscopy of epithelial tissue II.

Week 5
Lecture: Implantation. Development of the yolk sac, amnion, chorion. Extraembryonic coelom.
Lesson: Structure and function of connective tissue. Connective tissue in the strict sense of the word. Microscopy of connective tissue.

Week 6
Lecture: Blastogenesis. Notogenesis. Differentiation of mesoderm and mesenchyme. Neurulation.
Lesson: Cartilage, bone, ossification. Microscopy of cartilage, bone and ossification.

Week 7
Lecture: Development of the placenta, umbilical cord and fetal membranes.
Lesson: Muscle tissue. Microscopy of muscle tissue.

Week 8
Lecture: Overview of the fetal period, labor (parturition).
Lesson: Nerve tissue. Microscopy of nerve tissue.

Week 9
Lecture: Development of the face, nasal and oral cavity, tooth development.
Lesson: Blood, blood smear.

Week 10
Lecture: Organs of the oral cavity.
Lesson: Hematopoiesis, bone marrow smear.

Week 11
Lecture: General structure of the digestive tube. Esophagus, stomach.
Lesson: Microscopy of oral cavity organs and tooth development.

Week 12
Lecture: Small and large intestine.
Lesson: Liver, biliary tract, pancreas. Microscopy of digestive system organs.

Week 13
Lecture: Cardiovascular system.
Lesson: Microscopy of digestive system organs.

Week 14
Lecture: Lymphatic system - defense of the organism.
Lesson: Microscopy of the heart and blood vessels.

Week 15
Lecture: Lymphatic system - organs.
Lesson: Credit Test I: Cell, General histology and General embryology (lectures 1-8, lessons 1-10).
Credit test I retake dates during the exam period

Poslední úprava: Špácová Marika, DiS. (30.09.2025)

LECTURES - winter semester
1. Cell - morphological and functional unit of the organism. Cell membrane - structure and function. Membrane organelles.

2. Non-membrane organelles. Cytoskeleton. Specialization of the cell surface. Cell junctions. Molecular principle of the molecular motors. Clinical aspect: Mutations of keratins and skin disease.

3. Nucleus - structure and function. Cell cycle, mitosis, meiosis. Cell death - apoptosis. Exocytosis, endocytosis. Cell inclusions (deposits). Clinical aspect: Tumorigenesis.

4. Tissues - classification, general structure and function. Embryonic origin of tissues - germ layers.

5. Connective tissue - general characterization. Extracellular matrix - its synthesis and composition. Cartilage - structure and function Clinical aspect: Wound healing.

6. Types of bone tissue, structure and function. Bone histogenesis. Dentin and cementum. Clinical aspect: Bone fracture repair.

7. Muscle tissue. General characterization of smooth and striated muscle (skeletal and cardiac). Intercalated disc structure. Functional morphology of a myofibril. Clinical aspect: Muscle hypertrophy and atrophy

8. Nerve tissue. Neuron - structure. Synapse - structure and function. Neuroglia - classification, structure, function. Nerve fibers and their sheets. Initiation, spreading and transmission of a nerve impulse. Clinical aspect: Demyelinating diseases

9. Blood - composition and function of peripheral blood. Blood plasma. Classification and general characteristic of the blood elements. Hematopoiesis - hematopoietic periods, stem and progenitor cells. Regulatory mechanisms of hematopoiesis. Clinical aspect: Anemia.

10. Cardiovascular system I. Heart - endocardium, myocardium, epicardium. Electrical conduction system of the heart - histological structure. Blood vessels - general structure. Types of capillaries, their function. Clinical aspect: Myocardial infarction.

11. Defense of the organism, basic principles. Lymphatic organs - structure and function. Clinical aspect: Inflammation.

12. GIT 1 - liver and biliary tract - cytology and functional morphology of hepatocyte. Oral cavity. Structure of the tooth. Clinical aspect:Cholelithiasis.

13. GIT 2 - gut tube-general structure. Mucosa of the stomach. Clinical aspects: Peptic ulcer.

14. GIT 3 - mucosa of the small intestine, functional morphology of enterocyte. Clinical aspect: Malabsorptive disorder.

15. Respiratory system. Mucosa of the respiratory airways. Mucociliary complex. Respiratory epithelium and its functional morphology (blood-air barrier). Clinical aspect: Asthma bronchiale.

PRACTICAL LESSONS - winter semester

1. Introduction to cytology and histology. Basic terms. Methods of study of cells and tissues. Histological specimen. Processing of material. Communication with the histopathological lab. Basics of microscopy

2. Principles of staining, histological dyes. Basic and special staining methods. Identification of staining methods on slides.

3. Basics of histochemistry, immunohistochmistry and electron microscopy. Microscopical analysis of slides demonstrating histological techniques.

4. Epithelial tissue 1 - general characteristic, classification, basic types and their morphological properties. Microscopy of epithelial tissue.

5. Epithelial tissue 2 - functional classification and characteristic, glands - general structure, classification, types of secretion and their cytological features. Microscopy of glands.

6. Connective tissue. Visualization of connective tissue fibers. Types of connective tissue cells. Types of connective tissue, structure and function. Microscopy of connective tissue.

7. Lamellar and woven bone. Microscopy of hyaline and elastic cartilage and fibrocartilage, lamellar and woven bone.

8. Muscle tissue. Intramembranous and endochondral ossification. Microscopy of ossification and muscle tissue.

9. Neurohistological methods. Types of neurons in CNS and PNS. Structure of the peripheral nerve. Motor end plate, muscle spindle.

10. Blood. Formed blood elements. Preparation, staining and evaluation of a blood smear. Leukogram - its significance for diagnosis.

11. Bone marrow examination. Morphology of cell lineages of blood elements.

12. Cardiovascular system. Elastic and muscular arteries. Veins. Microscopy of heart, aorta, neurovascular bundle, inferior vena cava.

13. Spleen, thymus, lymph node, palatine tonsil, lingual tonsil.

14. GIT1 - Salivary glands and pancreas. Organs of the oral cavity - lip, tongue, tooth.

LECTURES - summer semester

1. Urinary system. Kidney, functional morphology of nephron. Clinical aspect: Diseases of glomeruli.

2. Endocrine glands - functional morphology of endocrine cells. Clinical aspect: Diabetes mellitus.

3. Male reproductive system - cytology of spermiogenesis, hemotesticular barrier, functional morphology of male reproductive passages. Clinical aspect: Benign hyperplasia of the prostate.

4. Female reproductive system - morphological features of ovarian and menstrual cycle. Clinical aspect: Cervicovaginal smear.

5. Integumentary system - functional morphology of the skin and skin appendages. Clinical aspect: Breast tumors.

6. The nervous system - CNS (brain, cerebellum, spinal cord). Hematoencephalic barrier. Clinical aspect: Degenerative brain diseases.

7. The nervous system - PNS (nerves, ganglia, peripheral nerve endings). Clinical aspect: Nerve regeneration.

8. Sensory organs I. Structure of the eye-retina. Clinical aspect: Retinopathy.

9. Sensory organs II. Structure of the inner ear (organ of Corti, macula statica, crista ampullaris), olfactory mucosa, taste buds. Clinical aspect: Hearing disorders.

10. Fertilization, cleavage and development of the blastocyst. Clinical aspect: Infertility and its treatment.

11. Implantation. Development of the yolk sac, amnion, chorion. Extraembryonic coelom.

12. Blastogenesis. Notogenesis. Differentiation of mesoderm and mesenchyme. Neurulation.

13. Development of the placenta, the umbilical cord and fetal membranes, their structure, function and anomalies. Hemoplacental barrier. Multiple pregnancies.

14. Causes and manifestations of the abnormal development. Chromosomal aberrations, teratogens, critical periods. Developmental anomalies.

15. Significance of embryology for gynecology and obstetrics. Prenatal diagnostics.

Practical lesson - summer semester

1. GIT2 - Liver, gall bladder. Oesophagus, stomach.

2. GIT3 - Gut, anus, appendix.

3. Respiratory system - epiglottis, larynx, trachea, lung.

4. Urinary system, kidney, urether, urinary bladder, urethra.

5. Endocrine glands.

6. Testis, epididymis, funiculus spermaticus, glandula vesiculosa, prostate.

7. Ovary, corpus luteum, oviduct, uterus, vagina.

8. Thick skin, thin skin, axilla, nail, mammary gland.

9. CNS - Brain, cerebellum, spinal cord.

10. PNS - Peripheral nerve, autonomic ganglion, spinal ganglion, muscle spindle.

11. Eye, inner ear, olfactory mucosa, taste buds.

12. Growth of the conceptus, determination of the age of the conceptus. Fetal period summary. Parturition (labor). Characteristics of full-term baby. Early development of the cardiovascular system. Primitive blood circulation.

13. Development of face, oral and nasal cavity. Development of the tooth. Microscopy of developing of the tooth.

14. Microscopy of embryologic slides - placenta, umbilical cord, chorion, decidua.

Poslední úprava: Kolářová Jana (16.02.2021)